theories

Act Utilitarianism (Bentham)

• Makes decisions based on overall utility

What does utility here mean?

The sum of all benefits subtracting the cost, choosing the option that maximises balance of happiness over suffering. (Maximum pleasure + minimum pain is what defines what is right and wrong)

• However, this is a "perceived" consequence

  • Eg. If I was in the isekai problem - you either save the kid or you save yourself.

    • If you argue that the kid is still small and has a long life ahead of them, as compared to you who have already experienced some part of life; so you save the kid OR

    • If you know that the kid would be the president of the country and save many people during their term, as compared to maybe your npc life, then based on overall happiness of the society, you save the kid.

    • Both of these above is a "perceived" consequence

• ❌ Sacrifices minority interest for majority interest due to greatest benefit

  ⇒ Does not respect individual or minority rights

• ❌ Pain and pleasure is subjective to each person

  • Eg. A person may derive joy from rolling in the mud, but the next person may not.

• ❌ Assumes that all pleasure is naturally good for all

  • Eg. Rolling in the mud may not be necessarily good for all mankind. Rolling in the mud implicates people to wash, and cleaniness of the area.

• ❌ Quantifies happiness for all actions, but how are we to quantify happiness, aestheic values and human relationships/love?

Rule Utilitarianism (John Stuart Mill)

• Similar to act, it talks about maximising overall happiness

• However, there are differences in happiness - between "higher" and "lower" happiness

  • Higher happiness is like intellectual gains, interests of future generation

  • Lower happiness is more temporal -

  • Connected to whether person is able to view themselves to be able to appreciate higher pleasures

• Unlike act utilitarinism, rule utilitarianism depends on whether a certain action if created as a rule, maximises overall happiness.

  • Eg. Batman talking law enforcement into their own hands through being a vigilate is ethically wrong. Because if this act was a rule, and everyone becomes a vigilante for their own purposes, there would be more chaos.

❌ Higher and lower happiness is once again is subjective to each person

• Eg. A person may derive joy from rolling in the mud, but the next person may not.

❌ Assumes that all pleasure is naturally good for all

• Eg. Rolling in the mud may not be necessarily good for all mankind. Rolling in the mud implicates people to wash, and cleaniness of the area.

Kantian

• Makes decisions based on moral rules and duties; consequence irrelevant

  • Based on 2 key features:

    • 1) Principle of Humanity

    • 2) Principle of Universalisation

Key Points	What does it mean?
Principle of Humanity	Do not treat individuals as a means to an end, but treat them as ie. Exploiting people or animals/using them for personal gain Or any method to gain/achieve an end. When something/someone becomes a tool to satisfy a desire/want, this is unethical. Ends in themselves means: respecting their rational autonomy and not exploiting or using them for personal gain Categorical imperatives (CI) CI asks on us to evaluate morality/ethicality of our actions by considering human dignity as key principles as key principle of determining what is morally right By being exploiting/using others as a tool is the most efficient way to achieve an end, it does not uphold human dignity and thus not an example of autonomy (and thus not treating people as ends in themselves, and by extension does not fulfil the categorical imperative's key principle.
Principle of Universalisation	Emphasis that moral principles must be capable of being consistently applied to all rational beings, meaning that if the moral principle is unable to hold in all given scenarios, it is not ethical. It is not the consequence, but the motive that makes an act wrong.

Virtue Ethics

• This does'nt provide strict rules or formulas for determining right and wrong but rather encourages individuals to develop good character so that they will make the right choice in moral dilemmas.

• The only guidance we have in this is virtue as balance: which is to find the mean between excess and deficiency.

  • Ie. Courage is the middle of rashness and cowardice

  • Ie. Generosity is between wastefulness and stinginess

Free Market Theory (Adam Smith)

• Relies on private ownership and voluntary exchange and individuals acting in rational self-interest to realise and maximise profits as the best way for society to flourish through a supply and demand market economy.

• Pareto Efficiency

  • A state is Pareto efficient if no individual can be made better off without making someone else worse off.

  • It is a measure of efficiency, not fairness or justice.

  • ❌ It does not account for equity: a society where one person owns everything and no one else has anything could still be Pareto efficient if no further changes would benefit anyone without harming someone else.

• Karl Marx - Limitations of free market

• ✅ Collective ownership of the means of production is necessary to prevent exploitation and ensure fairness.

  • [Goal] Replace capitalism with a classless society where production is organized based on need rather than profit.

• ❌ Market alone cannot address externalities like environment damage or public health crises

  • Redistributive polices are necessary for sustainability and justice

• ❌ Ambiguity in Original Ownership: difficult to practice in practice

  • Prior systematic beliefs may privilege specific individuals (Land inherited by people, but the same area is owned by indigenous tribes with a strong history)

Robert Nozick's Entitlement Theory

• A flavor of libertarianism

  • Libertarianism has two key points:

    • Self Ownership

    • Individuals have the right to acquire, own, and exchange property, including both tangible assets and intellectual property.

    • Minimal State

    • Government intervention (ie. law, legislation, wealth redistribution) and redistribution of wealth should be done minimally (just enough to perform essential functions), as it protects individuals' right to life, liberty and property.

      • Which means ⇒ People have individual responsibility for their own lives and choices without reliance on state intervention, which should remain minimal.

  • [Against Redistribution] Any redistributive tax policy violates individual rights, even if it aims to promote equality or social welfare.

  • [Historical Principle] Justice depends on how holdings came about, not just on current distribution.

  • [Rectification] If past injustices occurred (e.g., unjust acquisition), a rectification principle must be applied to restore justice — though in practice, this is difficult.

Point	What does it mean?	Example
Principle of Self Ownership	Individuals have absolute rights over their own bodies and the labor they produce. They have the freedom to make choices about how to use their talents and efforts.	[Supports] Privileged people are not obligated to help the poor: They are unfairly punished by being taxed more so that the less privileged can benefit [Reasoning] Individuals have the rights to the fruits of their labor Taxation of earnings from labor is on par with forced labor. Seizing the results of someone’s labor is equivalent to seizing the hours from him and directing him to carry on various activities
Principle of Just Original Acquisition	Individuals can acquire property justly by mixing their labor with unowned resources. In other words, if you work to transform a previously unowned resource (like land) into something valuable, you have a legitimate claim to that property. [Eg. Farming unowned land = you own it]	[Against] Communal Ownership: - Opposes the idea that natural resources belong to everyone collectively, and no one individually deserves ownership of land. [Reasoning] - Individuals have the right to claim unowned resources by mixing their labor with them, giving them a moral claim to ownership - Denying someone ownership after they've transformed or used a resource through their effort is unjust, as it disregards the value of personal labour and initiative - Requiring shared or collective ownership would force people to share the fruits of their labour with others who did'nt contribute, violating self ownership. - Argument on Historical Injustice: Many lands (e.g., colonized lands) were never truly unowned—indigenous peoples were already living there
Principle of Just Transfer	As long as both parties willingly agree to a transaction without coercion or fraud, the exchange is considered just, and the new owner is entitled to the property.	[Against] Consent to bioethics In bioethics, consent is often seen as valid once a person signs a form or agrees verbally. However, from Nozick’s view, true consent must be informed, voluntary, and free from manipulation or power imbalance—otherwise, it’s not a just transfer. If a patient or research subject lacks full understanding, is pressured, or has no real alternative, then the consent is not truly voluntary, and therefore the transaction (e.g., participation in an experiment, sale of organs) would be unjust. Consent under economic desperation (e.g., selling a kidney due to poverty) may mimic coercion, violating the principle of just transfer even if technically agreed upon

• Even if the person "agrees," the choice isn’t freely made—they’re under pressure, facing unjust consequences if they refuse (e.g., losing opportunities).

• This undermines voluntary consent, so the exchange is not just — it’s coercive

Justice

Distributive Justice

• John Rawl's Theory of Justice

Point?	What does it mean?	Example
First Principle: Equal Basic Liberties	Each Person should have an equal right to basic liberties: Freedom of speech Religion Political Individual rights is the most important, and cannot be sacrificed to provide economic benefits to a group	Each person is entitled to basic liberties - this would reject utilitarianism, where individuals would have their stakes risked being sacrificed for the greater good.
Second Principle: Difference Principles	Social and economic inequalities are acceptable only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society.	People with similar innate talents should have similar chances of attaining offices and positions regardless of which social economic class they were born into - Redistribution where least advantaged benefits may disincentivize hard work and effort in general - Significant taxation to support redistribution may provoke resistance or backlash, as someone has to take on the burden.
Veil of Ignorance	Rawls believes that if we want to build a truly fair and just society, we need to have this veil of ignorance. ⇒ Veil of ignorance allows for a society to be fair to everyone, no matter where we should start. ⇒ Because the veil of ignorance protects everyone, especially those who might get the short end of the stick. ⇒ Rawls says that this is how we should think when creating/judging rules in law, it is fair to everyone. ⇒ Example of veil of ignorance: Birth of humans into the world
	People should succeed because of their talent and effort, but true fairness means that everyone should have the same starting line: same access to good schools, nutrition, support.	[Against Free Market] Taxing the rich helps to uplift the people at the bottom, so that the society is fairer overall. A just society should let people use their talents, but some of the benefits should go help others who didn't get those talents or advantages

Aristotle's Distributive Justice

• Benefits and burdens of society distributed to individuals is proportional to their merit

  • Based on what individuals contribute to or their purpose (or, telos) in society.

  • Do what you are good at, not necessarily what you want to do, to achieve eudaimonia

Purpose

• Allocates roles and resources based on merit and natural abilities

  • Assumes that some individuals lack the capacity for rational thought and are suited only for certain purposes.

• Mentions more about handling differences in ability in people, thinking of differences in ability of people being natural.

  • And justice's role is to recognise and organise these differences.

Pros	Cons
✅ Justice involves fitting individuals to roles that enable them to realize their nature and fulfill their purpose. ie. Person suited for intellectual pursuits should focus on governance, while those suited for physical labour should handle manual tasks. This way of dividing labour contributes to societal flourishing.	❌ Justifies slavery and discrimination, and denies the inherent dignity and equality of all human beings Lead to elitism and create rigid social structures that resemble caste systems, limiting social mobility and equality.
✅ Prevention of Waste Prevents wastage of resources, ensuring that they go to those most capable of using them for their purpose Even with the right resources, giving them to those unqualified or those who cannot use them effectively would harm society than do good.	❌ Ignores individual autonomy and freedom of choice Assumes that individuals will align with what they are meant to do, rather than what they want to. Society functions best when individuals contribute according to their abilities rather than pursuing personal preferences. Allowing individuals to freely choose roles without regard for their fitness would lead to chaos and inefficiency

• This system relies on virtuous rulers/decision-makers to evaluate merit, leading to potential biases and misuse of power.

  • Risks further privileging those already in power.

Ethics of Care

Focuses on relationships, care, empathy, and responsibility rather than abstract rules or consequences.

Moral action stems from responding to the needs of others in specific, contextual relationships (especially family and community).

Ethical consent requires equal footing. In a workplace or academic setting, the power imbalance means the “weaker” party may feel unable to say no.

Buddhist Ethics

Rooted in the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path.

Emphasizes compassion (karuna), non-violence (ahimsa), mindfulness, and the reduction of suffering.

Right intention and right action are key.

All beings have intrinsic value, and ethical conduct is essential to reach enlightenment and break the cycle of suffering (samsara).

Just in case theres confusion..

Islamic Ethics

Based on the Qur'an, Hadith, and Sharia (Islamic law).

Ethics is grounded in obedience to the will of Allah.

Core virtues include justice ('adl), compassion (rahmah), honesty (sidq), and modesty (haya).

Every action is judged based on niyyah (intention).

There is a strong emphasis on community, charity (zakat), and responsibility to others

Hindu Ethics

Guided by concepts like dharma (duty/righteousness), karma (moral cause and effect), ahimsa (non-violence), and moksha (liberation).

Dharma varies based on one's role (varna) and stage of life (ashrama).

Ethical living involves fulfilling one’s role with sincerity and detachment from personal gain.

Caste implications have led to ethical critiques in modern interpretations.

Confucian Ethics

• Empahsises on the importance of community and collective well-being over individualism

Core Values

Core Value	What?
Junzi 君子	The goal of being a morally superior person who treats others with respect and dignity, and pursues virtues
Filial Piety 孝	Absolute obedience and loyalty to parents and authorial figures - Expected to put hierarchical relationships over personal autonomy and freedom - At the expense of personal choice and will, ethical reasoning ❌ Blind loyalty; hence
Ren 任	The idea of consistently demonstrating benevolence, compassion and kindness towards others. Golden Rule" Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself Empathy and moral obligation to care for others as we are inherently social and interdependent in our human interactions/engagement with the community It reflects true goodness, which is expressed and cultivated through relationships rather than actions ❌ Admires sacrifices like suicide/avenging wrongs to protect secrets or family honour promotes self-harm for the sake of societal expectations
Li 礼	Framework for maintaining social harmony through rituals, etiquette, and proper conduct. - Proper adherence to relationships ensures peace and prevents chaos - Observing rituals leads to normative social behaviour, fostering a virtuous society.