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Week 1

• Ethics is a discipline, when we make decisions, we justify them

  • Not based on instinct.

• Ethics require consistency and impartiality

  • Decisions made must be repeatable, fair and unbiased

• Check on Assumptions and Premises

  • If argument is no strongly justifiable, then ethical justification will crumble.

• Meritocracy (Sandel)

  • Meritocracy fails to reward diverse skill sets - only on what is defined as successful.

  • Nepotism, on the other hand, is a outlier in Meritocracy, as it defies how merit is defined and rewarded.

    • Recognises money as a talent

Cons	Pros
Base-Level Meritocracy - Creates inequality Meritocracy works effectively if everyone starts at same base (inherited wealth, access to quality education, equal opportunities - Societal System favour individuals with privilege.	Effect of system: Meritocracy gives people hope A sense of control over their fate and that their struggles were not for naught. Hope still does not solve anything, individuals still prioritize success in 5Cs, etc
Shift if Values, Market-Driven Judgments - Further Exacerbates inequality Societal values high paying skills over human traits like community contribution - System creates divisions based on economic supply/demand - This affects us on deeper level, on values for each person. - Neglect/undervaluation of essentials (ie. jobs, values)	For societies in the past, meritocracy might have worked, as a form of identity/teamwork/collectivism to pull people together through hard times. However, this system requires re-evaluation due to evolving inequalities
Effect of inequality: Middle-Class struggles and inequality Middle class faces widest income gap, and pressure on middle-class individuals to compete for limited resources/opportunities. -> Unnecessary competition that drives up the system. Middle Class/ Lower class often face systemic barriers preventing upward mobility, even if they have merit. Why acknowledge privilege before discussing meritocracy?
Mindset on System: Belief in Competition Success is tied to systemic belief - you need to go college Failure is treated as individual fault Focus on competition and outcome, not on societal inequities.

• Meritocracy - Moving away from it requires equity and logistics

  • Levelling the playing field requires significant structural changes

Shefali Roy

• Moral courage is required to seeing something wrong and stand up about it

Workplace Ethics

• Commonly there are contests between efficiency and fairness

  • ie. treat everyone as machines and optimise outcome, or treat everyone fairly?

• Vicarious liability

  • Legal principle where employers are held liable for harm caused by employees during the course of their employment.

  • Justifies employer actions like monitoring, regulating, or screening employee/job applicants behavior.

    • This is so as to mitigate potential liability and protect organisation risk.

      • Risks like tarnishing company reputation, losing trade secrets or productivity.

  • In a platform economy (ie. Uber/Grab)

    • Workers are often classified as independent contractors, complicating traditional VL applications.

    • Raises questions about how much control platforms exert and whether they should bear similar responsibilities.

• Discrimination

  • Can be legitimate if related to performance of the job

  • However, it is unethical if:

    • Employment decisions are made because the victim is of a particular group, or based on certain other non-job related characteristics

    • On the basis that the membership in the group makes the person unfit (age, race, gender, disability)

• Affirmative Action

  • Policies that give preference to members of various groups, e.g., admissions programs that take account of race to foster educational diversity

  • A rebalancing to address systemic inequity

• Privacy

  • Information privacy

  • Bodily privacy

  • Privacy of communication

  • Territorial privacy

  Joseph DesJardins • Privacy as a right to be ‘left alone’ within a personal zone of solitude: to what extent? • Privacy as a right to control information about ones

Index:

• Principal: The person or entity who entrusts someone else (the agent) to act on their behalf.

• Agent: The person who is supposed to act in the best interest of the principal.

Ethical Issue
Whistleblowing - Releasing non-public information as a moral protest	[Kantian - Violation] - If whistleblow out of anger, then using himself as a means to an end (which is to see his former company suffer) - Doing the right thing (alerting people to an issue), but the intention is wrong, which breaks the categorical imperatives of Kantian. ⭐ Which is why intentions determine morality of decisions - Principle of universality would also be against this. If everyone were to disclose confidential information, there would be constant breaches of trust, leading to a collapse in trust everywhere in society (companies, governments, and even personal relationships) would not funcitno properly. [Kantian - Supports] - Respects free speech of the whistleblower; and this is done for the sake of society so that no other people will fall into the company's trap. [Ethics of Care - Violation] - Whistleblowing is the effect of a company's failure to care for emotional needs of security, self-esteem of stakeholders. [Confucianism - Violation] - Although whistleblowing is an act of loyalty to company for the greater good to correct a wrong, at the expense of one's potential risk (Because we have a moral duty to prevent harm to others); an employee who does so is disloyal to its employer, >> In evaluations, loyalty should have limits, and should not override other principles/ be the highest obligation. >> Whistleblowing should be limited to serious harm to the employees or public. Serious threats should be reported to an immediate superior; and should an employee exhaust all internal procedures within the company, then should they take it out to whistleblow. [Free Market - Violation] - According to Free Market theory, we should act according to one's self interest. However, we must conform to basic rules of society, and in this case of professional code of conduct. When the whistleblowing act breaches professional code of conduct, agent can result potential suspension, which will drive him out of profession.
Commercial Corruption - Tipping/ Gift giving -> There is an implicit/explicit agreement/understanding that favour is to be returned for accepting my gift	[Kantian - Violation] - Money here is used as a means to an end, which is wrong. The intention was to speed things up, which may be good even if the cause was that to save people. But, if carried out in this way, is not right. - One has binding moral duty to observe the law and corruption is a breach of duty to (government/citizens of country/principle) - By principle of universality, if everyone were corrupt, everyone would breach their own moral duty to prioritize his interests - cannot be universalized because the essence of a principal-agent relationship would be rendered meaningless. [Utilitarianism - Against] - Inefficient allocation of scarce resources that will harm soceity at large. - Taxable income reduces benefit of the community/society, and the government/receiving party will redistribute this wealth to something that will not benefit society the most, but to whoever who can pay the most. []
Employment at Will You can be fired for any reason, or no reason Imbalance of Power between employer and employee	[Utilitarianism - Violation] - Although company can make most profit as possible, vicarious liability argues that companies would be responsible for actions, decisions and wellbeing of employee made during course of employment. [Free Market Theory;Pareto Efficiency - Support] - Job security for the employee [Kantian - Supports] - Employee is given freedom to give up certain things and negotiate for rewards. [Kantian - Against] - Limits and restrictions in contract violate the freedom of contract - Employer free to sack employee means that the employees are treated as a means than an end. - Lack of formal procedure when sacking/no good reason behind termination does not respect the employee's dignity. [Nozick's Entitlement Theory; Just Transfer - Against] - Although employee's time is exchanged with money from employer, contracts do not take into account human rights of workers and usually rules out any worker protective legislation. - Difference in bargaining power is also not taken into consideration.
Employment Discrimination	[Utilitarianism - Against] - Discrimination harms the victimised group and their families and also society in general. - Discrimination causes social unrest and feelings of anger that could lead to violence. [Kantian - Against] - Based on the Principle of humanity, people have the right to be judged based on their abilities and performance & not based on basis of stereotype. - Based on Principle of Universality, if discrimination is applied universally, the employees hired in (after the discrimination) might be unsuitable for positions as they may lack the skills and experience that other potential candidates that were overlooked due to discrimination may have. [Rawlsian - Against] - Not upholding equal freedom to all and equality of opportunity would violate the requirements to a just society. - Under the veil of ignorance, one might be a member of a disfavored group (However, in reality, this is usually not the case). If they are the least advantaged group of people, they would want to have a society that is based on meritocracy.
Sexual Harassment	[Rawlsian - Against] - all employees should be given equal opportunities to hold and advance their careers without having to submit to sexual advances. [Kantian - Against] - Principle of Humanity requires us to treat people as rational and autonomous beings (with dignity), not as a method to gain career advancement through quid pro quo [Utilitarianism - Against] - Reduces overall productivity and morale. - Victim is hurt in the process - Work environment will pick up on favoritism, which undermines fairness, leading to resentment and demotivation of other workers, creating an overall toxic work environment. - On a longer term, less value is produced for the company as the company's reputation as a employer is tarnished, driving away talented individuals. With lower diversity and weaker performance, the company's overall utility drops.
Poor Workplace Conditions	[Utilitarianism - Rejects] - Although there will be cost savings and profits, the long-term harm to workers outweighs these benefits. This would also undermine a company's credibility in the eyes of consumers and spark bad reputation for the company, causing a fall in profits from increasing ethical consumerism. [Rawlsian - Violates] - Veil of ignorance requires that all employees deserve an equal right to having a safe working environment.
Rights to Privacy - When inaccurate/incomplete information collected by an employer is used as the basis for making important personnel decision - When victim of collected data is unable to examine and challenge the information contained in it.	[Utilitarianism - Against] - Constant surveillance affects the workers' sense of dignity and self-worth that results in resentment or a decline in job satisfaction Creates a suspicious and hostile work environment, as trust between employees and employer is lost. [Confucian - Against] - Although this is an act of altruism, for the greater good, it does not uphold sense of dignity of the employees - Employee has an obligation to respect the goals and property of the employer. - The employer has reciprocal obligation to respect the rights of the employee as well, including rights to privacy. - This violates the principle of guanxi (reciprocity) [Kantian - Against] - In Principle of Humanity, everyone is entitled to autonomy and respect. Both autonomy and respect will be violated when there is an invasion of privacy. - When you spy on others, you deceive a person and his world, and interfere with his ability to make rational choices.

Corporate Social Responsibility

• Economic, Legal and Social

  • Economic: to do business and earn money

  • Legal: can do whatever it takes to earn the money as long as we abide by the law

  • Social: despite duties and legalities, there are considerations to why we should not do things a certain way

• 2 types of parties, the Stakeholder and the Shareholders

  • Stakeholders = have a stake in the company’s success, even if they don’t own it.

    • ie. Customers, Employees

  • Shareholders = own part of the company.

    • ie. Investors

Milton Friedman	Edward Freeman
The purpose of businesses is to increase its profits for shareholders	[Stakeholder theory] Purpose of businesses is to operate for the benefit of all those who can affect or are affected by the attainment of the corporation's goals. Corporation must be placed where stakeholder interests could be maximised over time Stakeholders begin to increase as the world becomes more interconnected

CSR

• CSR is something voluntary, or compulsory?

  • Moral initiative vs legal obligation

• Through CSR, businesses can be forces for good.

Should companies be socially responsible?	[Utilitarianism - For] - Downsides of CSR: CSR is costly, resources could be channeled to somewhere else more useful, along with the fact that that some businesses do not have the expertise to deal with social issues. - Ultimately, consumers are to bore the hidden costs. - BUT! If beneficiaries can benefit from CSR, negative externalities caused by businesses will be corrected. - Companies and shareholders can then gain trust and confidence with consumers, and increase their sustainability and survival as a business especially in the current context where more emphasis is now stressed on CSR. - Strategic CSR can also drive innovation to generate shared value for both business and society. [Virtue Ethics - For] - Despite the fact that virtue ethics promotes acting in accordance with one's proper function and a company's best function and first priority is business; and that doing CSR is acting against a company's best function; - A company that conducts CSR gives employees a chance to do virtuous act, and be a moral exemplar.

• CSR as a strategy

  • Doing good can align with doing well

  • By performing CSR, trust, brand loyalty, and employee engagement becomes a business asset.

• Code of Conduct

  • Are they folllowed in spirirt, or followed on paper.

• What is the right thing to do for company?

ESG

• External framework that focuses on measuring and reporting Environmental, Social and Governance impacts

  • Should we make it compulsory?

International Business

• There exists a range of practices considered morally acceptable in some societies but condemned in others. (Absolutism vs Relativism)

  • Is morality just a matter of cultural taste, or does universal ethical principles exists?

  • The answer to this: There exists certain concepts/behaviour that is deemed unethical across the globe.

    • ie. No killing people, or workplace harrassment.

• We should extend ethical standards from home to abroad too, not cultural practices.

• Tax Avoidance vs Tax Evasion

  • Avoidance = Legal but shady

  • Evasion = Illegal and deceptive

  • Key point: Both exploit the system, but the intention and legality differ.

• Supply Chain Ethics

  • Being transparent is the first ethical act

Marketing

• A strategy to give information to buyers and consumers about a product or service, to give them a level of autonomy

4 Pillars of Marketing
Product - What is offered?	Procedures that ensure products are ready for sale. Lifecycle responsibility on the part of manufacturers. Product safety. Products should not cause harm to users when used as intended. Companies must test and inspect products for risks If a product turns out to be unsafe, companies should recall it promptly and inform consumers. This relates to the moral obligation of companies. Product labeling Refers to the information provided on packaging or tags that helps consumers make informed decisions Ensures transparency, supports informed consent
Price- Whatitcosts	Set at a level comparable to competitors. Unfair pricing: Unreasonably high prices with deceptive discounts (price gouging) ie. Charging unreasonably high prices, often during emergencies or scarcity ( selling a bottle of water for $10 after a flood) Creates a false sense of value. Predatory pricing. Setting prices artificially low (even at a loss) to drive out competitors, then raising them once they’ve monopolized the market. Price fixing. When companies collude to set prices (instead of competing), keeping them artificially high or stable. Ethical problem: It breaks the basic rule of free markets — consumers don’t get real choice or fair pricing. Issues arising from monopolies/oligopolies General anticompetitive behavior Any pricing strategy meant to undermine competitors unfairly, not by making a better product, but by playing the system.
Promotion - How is it being presented?	Includes brochures, advertisements, and informational materials to generate interest.
Place - Where is this accessed?	How and where products are distributed and sold. Often targets poorer areas and vulnerable groups.

• These 4Ps must align with integrity.

• Advertising is one component of marketing — primarily the placement of ads in various media

  • Advertising can justify and facilitate fair transactions in the marketplace — but only when truthful and informative.

• The basis is that advertising should always be based on certain facts

  • However, not all companies when marketing their product/service, are truthful about this.

Ethical Issue
Deceptive Advertising Paid Reviews, False endorsements Misleading Information Product Placements Subliminal/Supraliminal Advertising Native Advertising Looks like a genuine article but is actually paid	[Kantian - Violation] - Deceptive advertising is wrong as lying is wrong - By principle of humanity, it interferes with a person's autonomy - make people act unknowingly on false beliefs, manipulates a person so as to disable that person's judgement. - Denies/her the capacity to act rationally, to put them as a means to an end. ⭐ Especially if endorsements are from professionals in that certain field, the consequences are greater.
Irrational Persuasion Appeals to the subconscious: Plays on desires for security, acceptance, and self-esteem. Associates products with unavoidable human perceptions (e.g., color, emotion).
Dependence Effect Creates wants rather than satisfying existing ones. Manipulates consumer behavior, undermining true autonomy.
Subliminal Advertising Examples: product placement, online targeted ads. May lead consumers to buy things they don't need or genuinely desire. Violates the consensual nature of transactions.
Stereotyping and Prejudice Reinforces harmful or limiting societal stereotypes. Can marginalize or misrepresent groups.

Deceptive Practices

• False statements and misrepresentations.

• Half-truths.

• Incorrect/misleading citations of sources or materials.

Interference with Rational Choice

• Undermines the voluntary nature of market transactions.

• Prevents consumers from making informed, rational decisions.

• Advertising's aim is not to produce a knowledgeable consumer.

• Often departs from reality (similar to poetry or metaphor).

When Advertising Becomes Immoral

• If an ad makes a claim the advertiser knows to be false, it is unethical.

• Ethical advertising should respect the consumer’s autonomy and rationality.

Technology

• As we have increasing technological reliance, the line between digital and physical world blurs.

  • Unauthorised use/stealing/misuse of one’s information

  • Selling personal information

  • Prevalence of monitoring

  • Digital world becomes a platform for crimes

    • Online theft, hacking and fraud/scams

  • Internet addiction and lost of mindfulness

  • Ethical life cycle of electronics

  • E-waste of capital of the world.

  • Freedom of speech vs. accountability (Online Anonymity)

    • Defamation/Hate speech/Cyber Bullying

Precautionary Principle

• If you don't know the risk, better to be safe than scientifically sorry.

Bioethics

• Ethical issues relating to healthcare and biomedical sciences, which are beyond traditional doctor-patient relationship

  • Examples:

    • End of life/Artificial prolongation of life

    • Assisted reproduction techniques

    • Human organ transplantation

    • Genetic Testing

    • Genetic enhancement

• Why is this important?

  • With power to create, heal, damage or even alter life (or the way of life) comes with deep responsibility.

4 Norms for bioethics (developed based on Beauchamp and Childress' four norms ):

• Respect for autonomy/Consent of the patient decision-maker:

  • Patient/Research subject should be:

    • Competent to make decision and;

    • Be adequately informed of and appreciate the facts that are material to his/her medical condition

• Non-maleficence (avoiding harm of the patient)

  • The process must minimize risks to all involved — physically, mentally, and socially.

    • Ie Ethical issue. Assisted reproduction may cause commodification of female bodies, but also potential health risks

• Beneficence (benefit over risks and costs)

  • Act in ways that promote the well-being of others.

    • Ethical concern: Are all parties truly benefiting, or is someone being used for another's gain?

• Justice (for fair distribution of benefits, risks and costs)

  • Fairness in distribution of benefits and burdens.

    • Ie. ethical concern: Global surrogacy may exploit inequality between nations or social classes.

Supplemented by moral virtues (compassion), which are going beyond mere compliance.

Examples

• Assisted Suicide

• Gender Testing/Genetic testing

• Phishing

• Cyberbullying

• Scamming

• Misuse of technology

Sustainability

• Goal: Mainstream environment being part of decision making, having the environment as a stakeholder

• 3 key points!

  • Instrumental benefits - derived benefits (ie. Making an empty plot of land allows us to have more trees to combat C02 difficiency)

  • Relational benefits - benefits because we are connected

  • Intrinsic benefits - value of nature by itself

• Sustainable Development + CSR

  • We need to be:

    • Ethically sensitive

    • Ecologically informed

    • Economically vibrant

• 3 Obligations of Sustainability

1. Renewable -> Dont overdraw/overuse it

2. Non-renewable -> Replace or repay

3. Waste/Emissions -> Keep within Earth's limits.

Multi-Species Justice

• We are not superior, and part of the environment - so we should extend our care to them too

Singer	Cohen
Utilitarianism view: - Animals suffer	Rights Theory: - Rights require moral agency

• Who do we become when we limit justice to humans?

  • We should extend justice to beyond those verbal and within the same species.